Bsc nursing 2nd year
Communication & Educational Technology.
(2019)
Answer. No. 1 (a)
Human Relations in Nursing :-
According to Keith Davis, "Human relations is an area of practice which is concerned with the integration of people into a work situation in a way that motivates them to work productively, cooperatively and with economic, psychological and social satisfaction".
Importance of Human Relations in Context to Nursing: Professional relationships are created through the nurse's application of knowledge and understanding of human behaviour and communication and commitment to ethical behaviour.
Having a philosophy based on caring and respect for others will help the nurse to be more successful in establishing relationships of this nature.
Nurse-client Helping Relationships: Helping relationships are the foundation of clinical nursing practice. In such relationships, the nurse assumes the role of professional helper and comes to know client as an individual who has unique health needs, human responses and patterns of living.
The nurse's therapeutic use of communication is the mechanism by which clients can achieve successful outcomes for the problems by achieving optimum health.
In therapeutic relationship, nurses often encourage clients to share personal. By doing so, nurses begin to understand the context of other's lives and learn what is meaningful for them from their perspective.
Nurse-Family Relationships: Many nursing situations, especially those in community and bo care settings, require the nurse to form helping relationships with entire families.
The same principles that guide one-to-one relationships also apply when the client is a family unit, although communication within families requires additional understanding of the complexities of family dynamics, needs and relationships.
Nurse Health Team Relationships: Communication in this relationships may be geared toward team building, facilitating group process, collaboration, consultation, delegation, supervision, leadership and management.
A variety of communication skills are needed, including presentational speaking, persuasion, group problem solving, providing performance reviews and writing business reports.
Both social and therapeutic interactions are needed between the nurse and health team members to build morale and strengthen relationships .
Everyone has interpersonal needs for acceptance, inclusion identity, privacy, power, control and affection.
Nurses need friendship, support, guidance and encouragement from one another to cope with the many stressors imposed by the nursing role and must extend the same caring communication used with clients to build positive relationships with colleagues and co-worker.
Nurse-Community Relationship: Many nurses form relations with community by participating in local organization, volunteering for community service or becoming politically active nurses.
Understanding the importance of community-oriented, population focused nursing practice and developing the skills to practice it, are critical in attaining a leadership role in health care regardless of the practice setting.
Communication within the community occur through channels such as neighbourhood, newsletters, public bulletin boards, newspapers, radio, television and electronic information sites.
Nurse can use these forms of communication to share information and discuss important to community health.
Answer. No. 1(B)
Importance of Team Work in Nursing: -Team work is a process by which number of persons achieve the expressed common goal.
In order to have a good team work, there must be clearly stated goal, result driven structure, competent team members, united commitment, collaborative climate, high standard that are understood by all, principled leadership and one must receive external support and encouragement.
Efficiency of Team Work depends upon the following:
(1.) Team goal must be clear and communicated and accepted by team members.
(2.) Involving all members in decision making.
(3.) Team leader have quality of identifying and resolving the inter- personal issues.
(4.) Utilizing the diversity of skills in team work.
(5.) Developing honest, trust worthy relationship in team members.
In a team, team members work together, communicate effectively among themselves and with people outside their team in a team members make useful contributions while working together.
This will affect the outcome of nursing service. Team work in nursing service is patient centered.
Nurse leader can motivate practicing nurses by encouraging team work. Team can be build from work groups to discuss and resolve work-related issues.
Teams should have identifiable output, inclusive membership leaders with carefully circumscribed authority, agreement on purpose, rules of procedure and measurable goals resources and feedback.
Teams are successful because they pool interpersonal skills knowledge and the experties needed to accomplish goals effectively and efficiently.
Team work achieves personal recognition, raises self esteem and increases motivation and commitment. It is stimulated by trust, support, completion, acknowledgement, communication and agree- ment.
No single agency can deliver the entire range of medical care and health care. Achievement of health and medical care can be best if many professional groups of workers like physicians, nurses, paramedical workers, health educators, health visitors, public health engineers and many others share a common unifying goal. This joint effort materializes through team work.
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Answer. No.1(a)
Meaning of Education The term education is derived from Latin word "educare" means "To lead out". This implies growth from within.
Definition : According to Rigiveda, "Education is the source of all illumination and it is something which makes a man self reliant and selfless".
According to Upanishad, "Education is that whose end product is salvation."
According to Panini, "Human education means the training which one gets from the nature."
Meaning of Philosophy: According to Brightman, " Philosophy is an attempt to think truly about the human experience or to make out whole experience intelligble"
The curriculum in nursing education is based on the philosophy of the school or college or university. Formulation of philosophy is the first phase in curriculum development process.
Formation of educational philosophy: Educational philosophy is the statement of principles useful and necessary for making decisions about the curriculum.
It serves as guide for selecting educational objectives which are significant and consistent in terms of accepted or emerging values.
It is criterion for making valuable judgements about behavior considered good or bad, wise or unwise, desirable or undesirable, useful or non useful by individuals or groups.
It is sub division of the general areas of philosophy: A philosophy of life is the basic and primary to philosophy of education. A philosophy of life establishes the fundamental principle of life.
A philosophy of education applies these principles to the special fields of education.
Four of these philosophies will be described briefly as they relate to education are:-
(1.) Theistic realism.
(2.) Experimentalism.
(3.) Neorealism.
(4.) Idealism.
Answer. No. 1(b)
Nature and Characteristic of Learning Learning is a process resulting in modification, relatively of the way of thinking, feeling, doing, of the learner.
It can be defined as "The mental activity by means of knowledge, skills, attitudes, appreciation and ideals is acquired, which results in the modification of behavior."
These modifications and changes in behavior involve the way in which a person thinks and feels. These modifications and changes in behavior come through experience and knowledge.
Nature and characteristics of learning are mentioned below: -
(1.) Learning is an Organizing Experience: Learning involves no additions and subtractions of knowledge. It is not mere act of acquiring of facts and skills through experience repetition. It is re-organization of experience.
(2.) Learning is Adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust properly in a new situation or new environment.
(3.) Learning is growth: The term growth related to growth of body. The body which is growing but through the mental growth of learner.
Learning is a growth through experience, e.g. the child grows with both mentally and physically through his daily activities.
(4.) Learning is active: The principle of learning by doing is the main principle in this.
According to Chinese proverb: "If I hear, I forgot; if I see, I remember; if I do, I know", illustrates the importance of learning by doing.
It does not take place without purpose and self-activity, e.g. in teaching-learning process, the activity of learner is more important than activity of teacher.
(5.) Learning is intelligent: Learning is always intelligent. When any person learns something unintelligently, he will forget that learned thing very soon and he does not gain but simply commits to memory.
This type of learning effort does not produce any permanent results. Only efforts made intelligently have lasting effects.
(6.) Learning is purposeful: Learning is always having some specific purpose. True learning is based on purpose.
This purpose is always concerned with the use of some inner powers with use of energy with which persons are endowed with birth, e.g. All school activities should be purposeful so that child should feel real urge for learning.
(7.) Learning is both individual and social: Learning is not the individual activity, it is a social activity also.
Individual mind is affected by the group mind, as individual is influenced by his/ her friends, parents, relatives, etc. and learn their ideas, feelings social agencies like family, films, religions, instructions, etc, are also having tremendous influence on learner and always moulding and remoulding the behavior of a person.
(8.) Learning is product of environment: Environment plays an important role in growth and development of an individual. Environment should be healthy and rich in educative possibilities.
(9.) Learning affects the conduct of learner: The person learns everything through experience. So after every experience the- re is a change in the mental structure of the learner.
(10.) Learning takes place through trial and error: Some learning is the outcome of trial and error.
(11.) Learning depends upon insight: Insight is the thorough knowledge skill. Learning depends upon insight.
Answer. No. 1(c)
Classroom management of Effective Learning:-Class room management and management of students conduct are skills that teachers acquire and handle over time.
These skills almost never 'jell' until after a minimum of few year teaching experience. To be sure, effective teaching requires considerable skill in managing the myraid of tasks and situations that occur in the classroom cach day.
Skills such as effective classroom management is central to teaching and require consistency, common sense, a sense of fairness and courage, etc. The above skills also require that teachers understand in more than one way the psychological and developmental levels of their students.
The skills associated with effective classroom management are only acquired with practice, feedback and a willingness to learn from mistakes.
There is no one best solution for every problem or classroom setting. Classroom teachers having many years of experience have contributed to an understanding of what works and what doesn't work in managing classroom and the behavior of students.
Effective discipline means the classroom is relatively free from confusion, disorder and anti-social behavior. Each student and the group framework which they understand, accept and incorporate into their behaviour without constant reminder and punishment.
An effective classroom Management:-
(1.) Room arrangement: While good room arrangement is not a guarantee of good behavior though poor planning in this area can create condition that lead to a problem.
The teacher must be able to observe all students at all times and to monitor work and behavior. The teacher should also be able to see the door from his or her desk. Students should be able to see the teacher and presentation and without undue turning or movement.
Commonly used classroom materials, e.g. books, attendance pads, absence permits and student references material should be readily available.
(2.) Setting expectations for behaviour:
(a.) Teachers should identify expectations for student behaviour and communicate those expectations to students periodically.
(b.) Rules and procedures are the most common explicit expectations. A small number of general rules that emphasize appropriate behavior rules should be posted in the classroom.
Compliance with the rules should be monitored constantly.
(i) Do not develop classroom rules that are unwilling to enforce.
(ii) School wide regulation-particularly safety procedures should be explained carefully. Because desirable student behaviour may vary depending on the activity and explicit expectation for the following procedure is helpful in creating a smooth functioning classroom.
(c.) Beginning and ending the period, including attendance procedure and what students may or may not do during these times. Use of materials and equipments such as pencil, sharpener, storage areas, supplies and special equipment.
(d.) Teacher led instruction.
(e.) Seat-work.
(f.) How students are to answer the questions, for example, no student answer will be recognized unless he raises his hand and is called upon to answer by the teacher.
(g.) Independent group work such as laboratory activities or smaller group projects.
Remember, good discipline is much more likely to occur if the classroom setting and activities are structured or arranged to enhance co-operative behaviour.
(3.) Managing student academic work: The focus is on academic tasks and learning as the central purpose of student effort rather than on good behaviour for own sake. Students must be held accountable for their work.
(4.) Managing inappropriate behaviour: Address instructions and assignments to challenge academic achievement while continuing to assure individual students success.
(5.) Promoting appropriate use of consequences:
(a.) In classroom the most prevalent positive consequences are intrinsic student satisfaction, resulting from success, accomplishment, good grades, social approval and recognition.
(b.) Student must be aware of the connection between tasks and grades.
(c.) Frequent use of punishment is associated with poor classroom management and generally should be avoided.
(d.) When used, negative consequences or punishment should be related logically to the misbehavior.
(e.) Milder punishment is often as effective as more intense forms and do not arouse as much negative emotion.
(f.) Misbehavior is less likely to reoccur if a student makes a d. commitment to avoid the action and to engage in more desirable alternative behaviours.
(g.) Consistency in the application of consequence is the key factor in classroom management.
(h.) Praise student performance or improvement.
Conditions to Facilitate Learning:-
(1.) Provide atmosphere which encourage pupil to be active.
(2.) Emphasize the personal nature of learning.
(3.) Accept that the difference is desirable.
(4.) Recognize pupil's right to make mistakes.
(5.) Tolerate imperfection.
(6.) Encourage openness of mind and trust in self.
(7.) Makes pupil feel respected and accepted.
(8.) Facilitates discovery.
(9.) Puts emphasis on self evaluation in cooperation.
(10.) Permits confrontation of idea.
Answer. No. 2(a)
Counseling:-
Counselling is a method that helps the client to use a problem solving process to recognize and manage stress and that facilitates interpersonal relationship among client, family and health care team.
Counseling is process in which two individuals meet. One is counselor who assists in analysing and understanding the problem and the other is counselee who has a problem and needs assistance in arriving at a solution to problem.
Based on the nature of the counseling process and the role of counselor.
Following are types of counseling approaches:
(1.) Directive counseling: In this type of approach the counselor plays n important role to replace the emotional behavior of the individual With deliberately rationale behavior.
Although he avoids dictatorial advice. Under this process the counselor plans the counseling process, his work is to analyze the problem, identify the triggers iden- ty the exact nature of the problem and provide various options.
This type of counseling is a concept, where educational and vocational guidance relate to the personality dynamics and interpersonal relationship.
This type of counseling is more useful where the individual wants information and advice for choice of a career.
(2.) Non-directive counseling is a type of counseling in which the counselor does not offer any direct advice or direction.
Methods used in non-directive counseling allow the patient to hear themselves discuss their own options to come to a coherent decision. It is also known as person centred therapy.
The person-centred therapy is a non-directive treatment. The client makes a journey through their problems and the therapist keeps them company. In order to make this counseling successful, the therapists must create an environment where the client feels unconditional positive regard, genuineness and empathy.
Only when the client experiences this can there be any commencement of therapeutic change. In a fully supportive environment the client can begin to understand their problems and work towards resolving them and changing the direction of their lives.
It has been argued that person-centered therapy can be very demanding on the therapist. The therapist has to have self-acceptance, self trust and be comfortable with their own feeling.
They must work at continuing to grow as a person and be pre- pared to broaden their own life experiences. The therapist must feel secure within themselves and be capable of supporting the client. Therefore, the therapist must suppress their own prejudice and values in person-centred therapy.
(3.) Electic counseling: In this counseling, the strategy arises out of the appropriate knowledge of students behavior and a combination of directive and other approaches irrespective of the differences, all approaches should have developmental, preventive and remedial values.
Answer. No. 2(b.)
Issues for Counseling in Nursing Students
Counsellors are often faced with situations which require sound, ethical and decision making ability. Determining the appropriate course to take when faced with a difficult ethical dilemma can be a challenge.
The following will address some guiding principles that are globally valuable in ethical decision making. A model that professionals can utilize as they address ethical questions in their work.
Moral principles:-
Kitchener (1984) has identified five moral principles that are viewed as the corner-stone of our ethical guidelines. Ethical guide lines which are at the foundation of the guidelines often helps to clarify the issue involved in a given situation.
(1.) Autonomy is the principle that addresses the concept of independence. The essense of this principle is allowing an individual the freedom of choice and action.
It addresses the responsibility of the counsellor to encourage clients, when appropriate, to make their own decisions and to act on their own values.
:- There are two important considerations in encouraging clients to be autonomous.
First, helps the clients to understand how their decisions and their values may or may not be received within the context of the society in which they live and how they may impinge on the right of others.
Second, consideration which is related to the client's ability to make sound and rational decisions. Persons not capable of making competent choice, such as children and some individuals with mental handicaps should not be allowed to act on decisions that could harm themselves or others.
(2.) Non malefactor is the concept of not cousing harm to others.often explained as "Above all do no harm" the principle that is considered by some to be the most critical of all the principles.
even though theoretically they are all of equal weight (Kichener 1984. Resenbaum 1982, Standers 1986).
This principle reflects both the idea of not inflicting intentional harm and not engaging in action that risk harming others.
(3.) Beneficent reflects the counsellor's responsibility to contribute to the welfare of the client. Simply it means to do good, to be proactive and also to prevent harm when possible.
(4.) Justice does not mean treating all individuals the same.
Kitchener (1984) points out that the formal meaning of justice is treating equally and unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences, (if an individual is to be treated differently).
The counsellor needs to be able to offer a rationale that explains the necessity and appropriateness of treating the individual differently.
(5.) Fidelity involves the motions of loyalty, faithfulness and honouring commitments. Clients must be able to trust the counsellor and have faith in the therapeutic relationship of growth to occur.
Therefore, the counsellor must take care not to threaten the therapeutic relationship nor to leave obligation unfulfilled.
Managing disciplinary Problems: One of the most difficult matter for beginning experienced teaching is effective classroom discipline.
There will not be a miracle care for the disruptions taking place in classroom nor will be a single and simple method that will solve the classroom management problems.
Effective classroom discipline does not just happen. Classroom management and management of students conduct are skills that teachers acquire and handle over time.
Answer. No. 2(c)
Steps of Counseling Process:-
(1.) Directive counseling or prescriptive: In directive counselling, the counsellor is the central figure and play more active role.
Steps of Directive counselling approach are:-
Collect the relevant data
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Analyze the problem
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Diagnosis or identification of nature of difficulty
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Prognosis
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Prescribe remedial measures
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Follow up
This approach of counseling is advocated by E.G. Williamson.
In directive counseling, counsellor uses a variety of techniques to suggest appropriate solution to the problem of the counselee
(2.) Non directive counseling approach: In this approach, counsellor's role is passive. It is a counselee centred or client centred humanistic approach.
Carp Rogers advocated this approach. Counselee makes the final decision. The counsellor has to accept the capacity of the client to make adjustment and adaptation.
The principle of acceptance, tolerance are extremely important.
Steps of non directive counseling approach are:
Establishing the rapport
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Exploration of the problems
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Exploration of the course of the problem
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Find out alternative solution
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Termination of the session
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Follow up
Answer. No. 3(a)
Seminar:- The seminar is a form of a class organization that utilizes a scientific approach to the analysis of a problem chosen for discussion.
It is an organized and guided discussion with the focus on the discovery of new relationship by the participating individuals. It differs from the intellectual initiative.
The student role is active in contrast to the relatively passive role assumed in a lecture. The objective in the seminar is to give students the opportunity to participate in methods of scientific analysis and research procedure.
Students are expected to do considerable library research and when feasible obtain primary source of data.
A seminar group is mainly concerned with academic matters rather than individual students and commonly involves the reading of an essay or paper by one group member followed by a discussion by the total group on the topic.
The seminar is a discussion method of teaching in which an informal group of 10-15 students (not more than 25) participate to solve the problems in a scientific approach and analysis.
Requirements of Seminar:
(1.) Teacher is a leader (student can also function as a leader).
(2.) 10-15 members are participants.
(3.) The topic is presented by the students taking 15-20 minutes time.
(4.) Duration is 1 to 2 hours.
(5.) Leader should keep the discussion within the limits of the problem discussed.
(6.) Students present their data in an informal way under the leadership of the teacher.
(7.) Care should be taken to avoid stereotype.
(8.) All the members take part in discussion in an informal way out orderly in manner.
(9.) The chairman should be skilled in encouraging the timid participants.
(10.) A student secretary should record the problems which arise and the solution given.
Advantages:-
(1.) Role of the student is active. It pre-supposes that student has background knowledge.
(2.) It properly conducted. The seminar teaches the method of scientific analysis and techniques of research.
(3.) The group as a whole and the individual student tries to solve problems.
(4.) Exchange of facts and attempts to crystallize the group opinion which is sound and workables.
(5.) By participation in the solution of problems, the student develops skill in solving problems.
(6.) By participation in the solution of problem, the student becomes more articulate and develops a more critical point of view and more organized and scientific approach towards issue.
(7.) Seminar gives training in self-learning and promotes independent thinking.
(8.) Ability to see and solve our own problems is increased because personal difficulties can be compared with those of the group.
(9.) Skillfully directed seminar promotes group spirit and cooperativeness.
Disadvantages:-
(1.) Time consuming.
(2.) Cannot be applied to new students.
(3.) Timid students cannot improve.
(4.) If subject knowledge is poor, unnecessary discussion arises.
(5.) The approach to problems extends to their professional and personal activities.
Answer. No. 3(b.)
Simulation: -
Simulation is the basis of sensitivity training, socio-drama, role playing and psychodrama.
Principles of simulation:-
(1.) Players take roles which are representatives of the real world and then make decision in response to their assessment of the setting in which they find themselves.
(2.) The experiences simulated are consequences which relate to their decisions and their general performance.
(3.) Monitors the results of their actions are brought to reflect upon the relationship between their own decisions and the resultant consequences.
Activities in simulation:-
Role playing: socio-drama and gaming.
Procedure:-
Selecting the role players:- A small group of 4-5 students, teachers are selected. They are assigned different letters in alphabetic manner.
The role assignments are rotated within group to give chance to everybody. Each member get a chance to act and observe.
Selecting and discussing skills: -The skills to be practiced are discussed and the topics that fit in the skill are suggested.
Planning:- It has to be decided who starts the conversation, who will kop the interaction and when.
Deciding the procedure of evaluation:- How to record the interaction and how to present it to as an actor, has to be decided so that a proper feedback on his performance could be given.
Providing practical lesson:- The role player should be provided reinforcement on their performance to give them training for playing their Part well.
Values:-
(1.) Enable learner to learn directly from experience.
(2.) Promotes high level of critical thinking.
(3.) Develops in the students an understanding of the decision-making process.
(4.) Enables individual to empathize with real life situation.
(5.) Provides feedback to learners.
(6.) Motivates the students by making real life situations exciting and interesting.
Answer. No. 3(c)
Micro-Teaching:-
Allen in 1996 defined, "Micro-teaching as a scaled down teaching encounter in class size and class time".
The number of students is from 5-10 and period duration ranges from 5-20 minutes.
According to David. B. Young, "Micro-teaching is a device which provides the novice and experienced teacher alike new opportunities to improve teaching. It is a real teaching scaled down in time and size of the class, 1-5 students for 5-20 minutes".
Objectives of Micro-Teaching:-
(1.) To enable the teacher trainees to learn and assimilate new teaching skills under controlled conditions.
(2.) To enable the teacher trainee to gain confidence in teaching and mastering a number of teaching skills on a small group of pupils.
(3.) To utilize the academic potential of teacher trainee for providing much needed feedback.
(4.) To give the teacher trainees training in the component skills of teaching at the preservice level.
(5.) To gain maximum advantage with little time, money and material.
Characteristics of Micro-Teaching:-
(1.) Micro element:- Micro-teaching reduces the complexity of the teaching situation in terms of:
(a.) Number of student to be taught.
(b.) Duration of lesson.
(c.) Subject matter to be taught to enable the trainee to concentrate on a particular teaching skill at a time. One should master the components of the task of teaching before he attempts to perform effectively the complicated task of teaching at a. macro-level.
(d.) The number of instructional objectives and the content is kept low.
(e.) It reduces the teaching skill and size of the topic. it is focused on micro events.
(f.) It is highly individualized training device to prepare effective teachers and provides feedback for trainees' performance.
(g.) Microanalysis of the teaching process consists of analyzing the minute details of teaching.
(2.) Teaching skills and teaching strategies:-
(a.) Pre-instructional skills:-
(i.) These include writing of instructional objectives.
(ii.) Sequencing and organizing knowledge to be presented in order to achieve specific objectives.
(iii.) Appropriate content.
(iv.) Proper organization.
(v.) Selection of proper audio-visual aid.
(b.) Instructional skills:-
(i.) Skills of introducing a lesson.
(ii.) Skills of explaining and illustrating.
(iii.) Reinforcement.
(iv.)Probing questions.
(v.) Reinforcing pupil participation.
(vi.) Diagnosing pupils' difficulties.
(c.) Post-instructional skills:-
(i.) Skills of writing test items.
(ii.) Interpreting pupils' performance in a test.
(iii.) Planning remedial measures. It enables the trainees to develop these skills and perfect them in such a way as to master the teaching strategies.
(d.) Feedback: Several reliable and authentic sources are used to provide feedback like oral feedback by the supervisor, observation schedules filled in by the peer group participating in the micro lesson, audio and video-tape recording, etc.
(3.) Safe practice ground: Teaching is performed under simulated conditions with a small group, the trainee is on a safe practice ground.
(4.) The teaching models: The trainee gets many opportunities to study the desired pattern of behavior through demonstration given by the supervisor or a tape guides the trainee to develop his own style.
(5.) The research laboratory:-
According to Allen and Ryan, the following areas of research seems to make the most effective use of the micro-teaching settings:-
(a.) To optimize the procedures and sequences in the micro- teaching situation.
(b.) Research in modelling and supervising techniques.
(c.) Task analysis of teaching act.
(d.) Investigation of the relationship between teaching behavior and students performances.
(e.) Aptitude treatment interaction studies to provide optimal training procedures for teachers with different abilities, interests and background.
Basic Principles of Micro-Teaching:-
(1.) Enforcement:- Feedback and reteaching makes teaching perfect.
(2.) Practice and drill:-Teaching is a complex skill which needs constant drill and practice.It affords practice in each small task or skill and thereby the pupil-teacher gain mastery.
(3.) Continuity:-Micro-teaching is a continuous process: teaching feedback-re-teaching-feedback till perfection is attained.
(4.) Microscopic supervision: Supervisor has an observation schedule which he fills up while supervising and makes assessment at rating scale.
The supervisor sees through the lesson all important points, paying full attention to one point at a time.
Advantages of Micro-Teaching:-
(1.) Superior performance.
(2.) Real teaching: The teacher and pupils work together in a practice situation.
(3.) Accomplishment of specific tasks: Tasks are the practice of instructional skills, the practice techniques of teaching, the mas- tery of certain curricular materials or the demonstration of the teaching method.
(4.) Increased control of practice.
(5.) Expansion of the normal knowledge of results and feedback dimension in teaching.
(6.) Helps in solving some of the problems involved in student teaching practice: As micro-teaching focuses upon specific teaching skills, it enables the supervisor and the learner to approach the job in the spirit of mastering the teaching model.
The appraisal of the student teaching becomes more objective because he himself is involved in the appraisal of his micro-lesson.
(7.) Effective in modifying teaching behavior.
(8.) Helps in developing important teaching skills: Micro-teaching, effective in developing the skills of questioning, reinforcement, silence, non-verbal cues, illustrations and use of examples.
(10.) Effective technique for transfer of general teaching competence to classroom teaching.
Limitations of Micro-Teaching:-
(1.) It is only a simulated technique with less number of persons over a short period of time.
(2.) It is expensive to procure and to maintain video recording equipment just for micro-teaching.
(3.) Limited to lecturing.
(4.) Time duration is 5-10 minutes.
(5.) Conducted under controlled environment where different audio- visual resources, etc. are provided.
(6.) Real life situations are quite different.
(7.) It does not apply to skills like decision-making, preparation of audio-visual resources, maintaining student records, etc.
Answer. No. 4(a)
Principles of using AV Aids:- According to Burton-Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce learning.
Principles:-
The following basic principles may be used as a guide for the effective use of an audio-visual education program:-
(1.) The instructional program should be so organized and administered that the audio-visual material function as an integral part of the educational program:-
The use of audio-visual material is not something distinct and separate from other curricular activities but rather is an integral part of the curriculum.
(2.) An audio-visual education program should be organized and administered in such a way that the program is centralized and under specialized direction and leadership:
The administration and the organization of the audio-visual education program should be centred on one individual.
This may be someone who gives full time or in the case of a small school, it may be a teacher who gives part-time, serving as director, coordinator or supervisor of the audio-visual media-program.
(3.) An audio-visual education program should be flexible.
In addition to those education communication media which are available through purchase, rental or loan, opportunities should be provided which encourage teacher to personalize their instructions through the preparation of their own instructional materials where feasible:-
This means that space, time and budget material needed for the preparation of communication media.
(4.) An advisory committee should be appointed to assist in the selection and co-ordination of audio visual materials:-
The function of such a committee should be to develop general policies and procedures for the administration of the program to be presented to the faculty for their consideration and approval.
Good utilization is effected only when all the teachers play a continuous part in the selections, the utilization and the evaluation of the materials.
(5.) Audio visual materials should be available where they are needed and when they are needed, if they are to be utilized effectively as an integral art of the curriculum:-
No matter how desirable it may be to use a given motion picture, a slide or a model in a learning experience, it is a little value if the materials not available at the movement that they are needed.
To use them too late or too soon reduces there contribution to learning.
(6.) Audio visual material should be centrally located:-
Centralization of audio visual materials is necessary to well orgnized or functioning program because:
(a.) It eliminates the frequent duplication of materials.
(b.) Pooling of equipment makes for more frequent and better use of equipment.
(c.) All audio-visual materials are readily available and accessible to the entire instructional staff.
(d.) Provides space for adequate preparation or production of audio-visual materials.
(7.) Provision should be made for helping instructors to acquire skill in the use of audio visual materials:-
There are of course those teachers who do use audio-visual materials very effectively because they know "Why", "how" and "when" to use audio visual media.
Teachers need special training in the use of audio-visual material and if they do not have it in their educational preparation, an inservice program in the utilization of audio-visual materials should be planned.
(8.) Budget appropriation should be made regularly for the audio-visual education program:- Audio-visual materials are expensive and must be kept up-to-date and in repair. Therefore, a definite budget should be planned for this purpose.
(9.) Evaluation of the audio-visual education program should be made at regular intervals:- Acquisition of equipment and materials, stimulation of teacher interest and securing of financial support are not enough if an effective audio visual program is to be established.
Materials and equipments have to be used with understanding and skill to utilize educational objectives. The value of every audio-visual aid should be proved every step of the way from planning and productive through utilization.
Evaluation should be made continuously of the function and the use of each audio-visual aid.
(10.) Legal aspects should be considered in the production and the utilization of educational communication media:- This is particularly important where audio-visual materials are prepared by teacher. For example, Television programs where a patient may be televised.
In instances where people are photographed or their voices recorded. It is advisable to obtain permission in writing to avoid possible legal involvement.
Answer. No. 4(b)
Projected Aid
Still Projected Aids: Still pictures can be projected on a screw to supplement teaching.
These aids are extremely useful as a rot of software is readily available or use in the area of still (non moving) projection. It is useful for larger groups.
These can be used for:-
(1.) Class room teaching to motivate the Students.
(2.) To bring distant past events into the class room.
(3.) To demonstrate certain skills and share some experience at the same time.
These are Four Kinds of Projected Aids:-
(1.) Projection.
(2.) Slides.
(3.) Film strips.
(4.) Overhead projections.
Overhead Projector:- It is a versatile and popular device for projecting transparencies. It is a day light projection and face to face interaction with the students O.H.P. given a bright evenly lit image which attracts the students.
The operator has complete control over the presentation.
Parts of the Overhead Projector:
(1.) Projection head lens and mirror focus wheel.
(2.) Projection handle.
(3.) Hand grips for alternate roll.
(4.) Glass plate/transparency stage.
(5.) Fresnel lens.
(6.) Switch for cooling fan.
(7.) Switch in tensing dimmer.
(8.) Adjustable feet.
(9.) Overhead projector.
Procedure for Operating OHP:
(1.) Set the projector near the front of the class room, with the projection head facing the screen/wall adjust distance.
(2.) Put on the cooling fan and then lamp.
(3.) Place the transparency on the transparency stage with the right slide up.
(4.) Focus the projection lens until the image is sharp.
(5.) Reveal the transparency only when required to demand the attention of the students.
(6.) Allow enough time to read the information.
(7.) Use pencil, pen or pointer to emphasize the important points.
(8.) When writing on transparency be careful not to obstruct the view with your head.
(9.) Put off the light first and then cooling fan.
(10.) Replace the OHP after it is cool.
After Care of the Equipment:-
(1.) Use anti static cream for polishing plastic surfaces clean lens periodically with as moist pad and detergent cleaner.
(2.) Do not handle projection lamps.
Advantages:-
(1.) It permits the teacher to stand in front of the class while using the project thus enabling her to point out features appearing on the screen by pointing to the material at the projecter itself and at the same time to observe the students' reactions to her discussion.
(2.) It offers a very flexible tool for teaching because a wide variety of materials can be used for many different teaching purposes.
(3.) It can be used in a fairly well-lighted room.
(4.) Material projected can be changed easily and quickly.
(5.) To develop concepts and sequences in a subject matter area, each component part can be presented as the teacher senses the student's readiness for the next step.
(6.) To make marginal notes on the transparencies, for the use of the 6. teacher that can be carried without exposing them to the class when projected.
(7.) To test student's performances while other classmates observe.
(8.) To show relationships by means of transparent overlays in contrasting colour.
(9.) Overhead projector can be used in the normal classroom. The difficulty of ventilation does not hamper teaching which is the case with other projection equipments that are used in a dark- room.
Using an Overhead Projector: While using an overhead projector one should proceed in the following steps:-
(1.) Place the overhead projector on a stable table with the objective lens facing the screen behind the teachers.
(2.) Put the cord plug into a power wall socket switch on the blower first and then the bulb.
(3.) Place the acetate or cellophane transparency on the glass top.
(4.) Move the objective lens and mirror to assembly up and down to get the image in focus on the screen.
(5.) Explain about the material on the transparency sitting behind the overhead projector with a small pointer.
(6.) Do not keep the overhead projector too low as it will make the image distorted, i.e. image will get wider at the top and nar- rower at the bottom. This distortion is called keystoning.
(7.) Do not keep the bulb on for a long time. It can overheat the projector and damage the acetate transparencies as well as the bulb.
Answer. No. 5(a.)
Short-answer type question:- Short -answer type question is between an essay type an objective type questions.
In short answer items, students or examinee is to respond to the item with a work, short phrase,number of a symbol (AJ nit,1983).
Short answer items are considered objective items in that there is a single correct answer/response can be secured Objectively.
Advantages:-
(1.) short-answer type questions are easy to construct as they measure only simple learning outcomes.
(2.) They are very useful for the recall of simple memorized facts, and figures and it provides utile opportunity for guessing the student is required to supply information or to solve numerical problem.
(3.) They are useful to test lowest level of cognitive taxonomy.
(4.) A relatively large sample of the content can be covered by the inclusion of a large number of short answer questions.
(5.) It is useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts and graphs.
Disadvantages:-
(1.) They are not suitable for measuring complex learning outcomes.
(2.) They are not suitable for judging the power of analyzing and reasoning of the students.
The following suggestions will help to overcome short coming and improvements in short answer type.
(1.) The intended answer should be thought first and then an appropriate question formed.
(2.) Sufficient number of short-answer question should be asked to Cover the content.
(3.) A direct question is more desirable than an incomplete sentence.
(4.) Language of the question should be simple.
(5.) A scoring key should be prepared.
(6.) The number of words the answer should contain must be specified.
(7.) Avoid picking up the statements directly from the textbook for these..,
(8.) Onset important words only.
(9.) The response should be very definite.
(10.) Avoid excessive blanks in a single item.
Answer. No. -5(b.)
Use of Computer:-
Computer influence every aspect of human activity and bring many changes in education, health care, scientific research, social sciences, law, music and painting.
In developed countries, computers have become part of every man's life, whereas in india, it is limited to certain fields.
Usage of computers in health care system will some time, economize energy and help the nurses to provide quality nursing care.
In Clinical Practice:- Admission, discharge and transfer system allows nurses to obtain basic biographical information about the clients before they arrive to the ward unit.
When a discharge or transfer is entered in the computer all the appropriate departments will be notified, e.g. Pharmacy, Dietary, House keeping. Lenses, Client's location in the unit, etc. everything will be readily available, thus it saves the time of the nurses.
Nursing Documentation:- Computer typing is very legible. Nursing process, care plan, imple- mentation of activities, nursing notes and discharge plans can be computerized.
It can be stored in a format determined by the institution.Through computers drug calculations, flow rates can be done mare accurately and easily.
Multiple programme choices can be chosen for application of nursing theories into nursing care activities like communicate physicians orders, monitors clients and also receive lab test results.
In Nursing Education:- Computer assisted instruction programmes are very useful in self paced learning. Learner will interact with computer (it takes the role of teacher).
(1.) Drier and practice:-
(a.) Most common and least complex method.
(b.) A learner is presented with a series of questions or problems about materials, e.g. drug dosage calculations, I.V. drip rate calculations, terminology, etc.
(c.) Writing up of text books, collection of education materials, etc.
(d.) Library maintenance.
(2.) Tutorial programs:-
(a.) Display new material.
(b.) Tutorial information.
(c.) Feedback.
(3.) Simulations:
(a.) The real life situations will be presented to assist learner in problem solving and decision making skills in a safe environment.
(b.) Interactive video instruction can provide learner with true life simulation.
(c.) Video pictures and graphics can be incorporated in the design of software.
(4.) Nursing research:- Research works like:
(a.) Review literature or search for related articles,e.g internet,meddlers, search line, etc.
(b.) Tool for data collection.
(c.) Dissemination of finding the results.
(d.) Tabulations.
(e.) Preparation of research reports and project reports.
Nursing administration:-
(a.) Computerized patients classification system can be used to assign nursing staff based an how severely ill the clients are.
(b.) Clients are classified on the basis of their abilities or need for nursing care.
(c.) Computerized inventory system keeps track of supplies received and distributed.
(d.) Client billing system.
(e.) Diagnosis or reports.
(f.) General computer application software, e.g. word processing, electronic spreadsheets, data based management system, etc.
(g.) Budget planning.
(h.) Maintenance of personal records.
(I.) Calculation of number of nurse required on each unit.
Answer. No. -5(c)
Criteria for Selection of Assessment Technique:-The techniques/methods or tools used for evaluation are means for collecting evidence about student's development in desired direction.
These tools, therefore, should be have this criteria:-
(1.) Valid: The accuracy with which a test measures whatever it is intended to measure. Validity is the most important consideration on the selection and use of testing procedure.
validity of a test must determinate with reference to the particular use for which the test is being considered.
(2.) Reliability: The degree of accuracy with which an exam or test measures, what it seeks to measure a given variable.
The degree of consistency among tests score. A test score is called reliable when we have reasons for believing to be stable and trustworthy.
(3.) Objectivity:- A test is objective when the score's personal judgement does not affect the scoring. It eliminates fixed opinion ir judgement of person who score it.
The extent to which independence and component examiners agree on what constitutes a good answer for each of the element of a measuring instrument.
(4.) Practicability: The overall simplicity of use of a test for both for constructor and for learner. It is an important criteria used for assessing the value of a test.
Practicability depends upon various factors like ease of administrability, scoring interpretation and economy.
(5.) Relevance: The degree to which the criteria established for selecting the item so that they confirm the aims of the measuring instrument.
(6.) Equilibrium/equity: Achievement of correct proportion among questions allotted to each of the objective and teaching content.
(7.) Specificity: The items in a test should be specific to the objectives.
(8.) Discrimination: The basic function of all educational measurements is to place individuals in defined scales in accordance with difference in their achievements.
Such a function implies a high discrimination power on the part of a test.
The discriminating power of a test items refers to the degree to which it discriminates between good and bad students in a given group or a variable.
This suggests that pupils with superior ability Should answer the item correctly more often than pupils who do not have such ability.
(9.) Efficiency:- It ensures the greater possible no. of independent answer per unit of time.
(10.) Time:- The required time to answer items should be provided to avoid hurry, guessing, taking risk or chance, etc.
(11.) Length: The number of item in test should depend upon the objective and content of the topic.
(12.) Test of usefulness: Grading or ranking of the student can be possible with items in the test.
(13.) Precise and clear: Items should be precise and clear so that students can answer well and score marks.
(14.) Comprehensiveness: The total content and objective has to be kept in mind while preparing items for the test.
(15.) Adequacy: A measuring instrument should be adequate balance and fair. The test should include items measuring both the objective and the content.
(16.) EASE of Administrability: Provision should be made for the preparation, distribution and collection of test materials.
(a.) Instruction should be simple clear and concise.
(b.) Practice exercise will be illustrated.
(c.) Illustration should be clear cut and easily tied up with the appropriate test items.
(17.) EASE of Scoring: Simple scoring is good. No algebraic manipulations should be required to get the scores.
(18.) EASE of Interpretation: The raw scores of a test should be easily converted into meaningful derived score.
(19.) Economy: It should be computed in term of the validity of the test per unit of cost. Economy refers to the cost as well as the time required for administering and scoring a test.
(20.) Comparability: A test possesses comparability when scores resulting from its use can be interpreted in term of a common basis that has a natural or accepted meaning.
Answer. No. -5(d)
Health Education to a Group:-
(1.) Health education is a process that informs, motivates and help people to adopt and maintain healthy practices and life styles and advocate environmental changes as needed.
To facilitate this goal, conducts professional training and research to the same end. This definition is adopted by the National conference on preventive in USA.
(2.) "A process aimed at encouraging people to want to be healthy, to know how to stay healthy, to know what they can do individually and collectively to maintain health and seek health when needed". This definition is given by declaration of Alma-Ata (1978)
(3.) According to Joha. M. Last"The process by which individuals and group of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance or restoration of health".
Purposes of health education:
(1.) Inform public about proper use of health services available to them.
(2.) To provide healthy environment by inculcating the healthy habits and healthy practices.
(3.) Create awareness of public about their needs and enable them to identify their own problems.
(4.) To encourage people to adapt healthy life style.
(5.) To enhance the role of public in conveying health related message in community.
Health education brings together the art and science of medicine and the principles and practice of general education.
Health education is composite of two main activities "teaching and learning". Teaching is ineffective without learning.
Both health educator and client are responsible for bringing about change in health knowledge, health attitude and health behaviour.
The health educator plans following principles of health education-credibility, interest, participation, motivation, comprehension, reinforcement, learning by doing, known to unknown, good human relations, feedback.
Media used for communicating health message are:-
(1.) Audio-visual aids:- No health education can be effective without audio-visual aids. It helps to simplify unfamiliar concepts bring about understanding where words fail, reinforce learning them by appealing to more than one sense and provide a dynamic way of avoiding monotony.
Modern science has made available an endless array of A-V aids.
(a.) Auditory Aids: Radio, tape-recorder, microphone, amplifiers, earphones, etc.
(b.) Visual Aids:
(i.) Not requiring projection: Chalk board, leaflets, posters, charts, flannel graph, exhibits, models, specimens, etc.
(ii.) Requiring projections: Slides, film strips, etc.
(c.) Combined A-V aids: Television, sound films, slide-tape combination, etc.
Answer. No. -5(e)
Mass Media:-
DEFNITION : Mass media is a "one-way communication". It is useful transmitting messages to people even in the remotest places.
(1.) Television :- Television has become most popular among all media. It is not only effective in creating awareness but also influences public opinion and introduces new ways of life.
It has much potential for health communication.
(2.) Radio :- In many developing countries, the radio has a broader audience than T.V. It is purely a didactic medium.
It is much cheaper than T.V. Doctors and health workers may speak out on radio.
(3.) Internet: It has vast capability of transfer of knowledge and it has made possible to get into direct and instant communication across world by means of E-mail and on-line chat.
(4.) Newspaper: Newspapers are most likely disseminated of all forms of literature. News must be worthy before it is printed.
Newspaper leaders are often seeking newspapers. Newspapers have limitation of having low readers in rural areas because of literacy.
(5.) Printed material: Magazines, pamphlets, booklets and handouts have been long in use for health communication.
They can be produced in bulk at very little cost and can be shared with others in family and community.
(6.) Direct mailing: This is a new innovation in health communication in India, e.g. folders, newsletters and booklets on family planning, immunization and nutrition.
It has been a successful mass media in creating public awareness.
(7.) Health museums and exhibitions : Health museums and exhibitions can attract large number of people. It increases knowledge and awareness by preventing a variety of ideas.
It offers a package of both personal and impersonal methods of communication.
(8.) Folk media : The term mass communication ought to refer to totality of communication which takes within its compass not only the electronic media but also folk media such as katha, folk songs, dance sho ws which have roots in our culture.
Each community should develop techniques that meet its own needs.
Answer. No. -5(f)
Role and Preparation of a Counselor:- For effective counseling, the counselor needs to prepare certain attitude, skills, knowledge and physical setting.
(1.) Personal preparation:
(a.) Self awareness and understanding: A counselor should be aware about his need, motivation feeling, personal strength and weakness. A counselor should be aware about self.
(b.) Physical Health: Physical health of a counselor should be in a good state. A pleasing appearance always add in coun- seling process.
(c.) Psychological Health: A good state of psychological health can be trained to be a good counselor. A counselor should be mentally healthy in all the aspects aware of one's limitation. flexibility and adaptability should develop in his behavior. It shows unbiased attitude in using coping mechanism.
(d.) Sensitivity towards others feeling: A person who is aware of resources, limitation and vulnerability of other persons as well as is keenly perceptive to other person's feeling and needs is considered to have sensitivity.
(e.) Open mindedness: A counselor should be free from fixed or pre-occupied ideas. It does not mean that they have no personal value, but they are aware of their own values and beliefs and are able to distinguish from the belief and value of others.
(f.) Trust-worthiness: A counselor should be reliable, honest and not disclose the information to others.
(g.) Approachability: Counselor should be approachable. He should be friendly, pleasant and can be approached without a feeling of apprehension.
(2.) Physical Preparation:- Counseling can occur almost anywhere but some physical setting promote the process better than others.
Benjamin and Seltzer address external condition involved in counselling.
(a.) The room should be comfortable and attractive. Room should not be overwhelming, noisy and distracting.
(b.) The distance between counselor and client can also affect the relationship. Individual differs about the level of comfort experienced in interaction with others.
Comfort level is also influenced by cultured background, gender and the nature of relationship.
A distance of 30 to 39 inches has been found to be the average range of comfort between counsellor and client of both gender. This optimum distance may vary because of room size and furniture arrangement.
(c.) There should not be a table (desk) during sessions. A desk can be physical and symbolic barrier against the develop- ment of a close relationship. Benjamin suggests that counsellor includes two chairs and nearby table in the setting.
(d.) The chair should be set at 90 degree angle from one another so that client can look either at their counsellor or straight ahead. The small table can be used for many purposes. such as place for a box of tissue.
(e.) All phone calls should be held off, counselor should put, 'Do Not Disturb Sign', on the door to prevent others from entering.
(f.) Auditory and visual privacy is maintained by professional code of ethics and assure maximum client's self disclosure.
(g.) The physical appearance of counsellor is also very important for success in counseling than others.
Yavis-young, attractive, verbal, intelligent and successful counselor is more effective.
(h.) Counseler should be aware of the importance of physical attractiveness in their own lives and monitor their behaviour reaction when working with attractive clients.
(I.) The non verbal behavior of client is also very important that should be clearly observed.
(j.) A client's body gesture, eye contact, facial expression, sit- ting style, tone of voice, etc. should be noted during counseling.
Qualities of Effective Counselor:-
(1.) Intellectual Competence: Counselor must have a knowledge about many things, e.g. theories as well as the desire and ability to learn. He must have knowledge of social environment, counseling techniques.
(2.) Energy: Counseling is emotionally draining and physically demanding. Counselors must have the ability to be active in their session and sustain that activity when they see a number of client in a row.
(3.) Flexibility: Effective counselor are not tied to one specific set of responses. They adapt what they do to meet the need of their client.
(4.) Support: Counselor supports to clients in making their own decision.
(5.) Foresightedness.
(6.) Self-awareness: This quality consists of a knowledge of self including attitude, value, feeling and the ability to recognize how and what factors effect them.
Answer. No. -5(g)
Flash Cards:-
Flash cards are small cards of generally 25x30 cm size which are shown for a few moments before the class to send across a mes- sage or impart an idea.
The idea in the flash card should be brief. Flash cards are especially useful for the drill in various subjects. They may also be used for reviewing a lesson with students.
Flash cards would be used along with the other graphic aids to make the lesson effective.
Preparation of flash cards:- Cut a polscap chart paper and cut it into four equal parts to get the flash cards.
Write the content on it either in the free hand or using lettering stencils and sketch pen. Also the height of writing on the flash card is to be approximately 5 cm so that the whole class can see the flash card properly.
It is advisable to make a rough card on an ordinary paper first and then transfer it on the chart paper or cardboard flash cards.
Using the flash cards:- For classroom instruction the flash cards are to be used properly.
It is recommended that the flash cards should be presented in the following steps:
(1.) Give brief introduction about the lesson to students.
(2.) Give instructions to students about their actions while you flash the cards.
(3.) Flash the card in front of the class by holding it high with both your hands so that all the students can see it.
(4.) Let the students respond as per instructions already given.
(5.) Add more information to the student responses. .
(6.) Test the learning by additional flash cards.
(7.) Review the lesson by selectively using flash cards.
Advantages of flash cards:- The following are the advantages of flash cards:-
(1.) Flash cards can be used to introduce and present topics.
(2.) Flash cards can be use to apply information already gained by students to new situations.
(3.) Flash cards can be used to review a topic.
(4.) Flash cards can be used for drill and practice in elementary classes.
(5.) Flash cards can be used to develop the cognitive abilities of recognition and recall of students.
(6.) A sense of special purpose flash cards can be used for playing educational games to couple learning with fun.
(7.) Flash cards can work as useful supplementary aid and can be effectively used with other materials.
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